By: Giovana Martins
INTRODUCTION
The current paper is an extension of the previous prospectus. This extended assignment determines features of the selected firm's communication practices applying approaches such as functional, meaning-centered and/or emerging perspectives. For the current assignment, the firm's web site chosen is Hewitt.com. Hewitt Associates, LLC was founded in 1940 by Ted Hewitt and provides management consulting services specializing in personnel; including employee benefits, compensation, communication, and administration. Hewitt has 81 offices in 37 countries and serve clients worldwide. The firm ranks among the top 200 of Forbes' "Top 500 Private Companies 2000". The firm has also earned 3rd place in Chicago magazine's " Best Places to Work", featuring the top 25 companies in Chicago-area (October, 2000). Hewitt also received a special recognition for outstanding service as an outsourcing supplier from the Outsourcing Journal's Annual Awards (February, 2001).
SECTION II
The next few pages outlines Hewitt 's communication practices. Three particular approaches: functional, meaning-centered and emerging perspectives were utilized as tools in order to analyze the firm's communication practices. Those approaches view communication practices in different ways, but it is important to note that no company can be framed in only one specific approach. Indeed, communication practices can embody various aspects from each view.
The functional approach:
The functional approach is a way of understanding organizational communication by describing what messages do and how they move through organizations (Shockley-Zalabak, 1998, p.40). This approach helps identify the functions of the messages and describe the messages' structure.
There are three communication functions identified by this approach: organizing, relationship and, change. Organizing functions are messages that establish the rules and regulations of a particular environment. A relationship function is the communication that helps individuals define their roles and assess the compatibility of individual and organizational goals. Change functions are messages that help organizations adapt what they do and how they do it; viewed as essential to an open system ( Shockley-Zalabak, 1998, p.44-45). Those three communication functions could be described as:
Organizing messages - rules and regulations, organizational policies and, task definition, instruction and evaluation.
Relationship messages - individual role definition, individual/organizational goals, symbols of status and integration among supervisor/subordinates, peers.
Change messages decision-making, market analysis, processing of new ideas, environmental inputs, employee suggestions and problem solving.
There are five communication structures described by this approach, such as networks, channels, direction, load and, distortion. A description of those communication structures follows below:
Networks are the formal and informal patterns of communication that link organizational members together. Supervisors and subordinates, task forces, committees, quality circles and other types of decision-making bodies are examples of formal communication networks. So is the use of technologies such as computers and video systems in order to establish communication links. The exchanging of information related to both the organization and the social relationship emerges when individuals work together. The "grapevine" is an example of informal communication network.
Channels are the means for the transmission of messages. Common means are face-to-face interaction, group meetings, memos, letters, electronic mail systems, computer-assisted data transmission, and teleconferencing.
Direction is the description of the movement of messages in organizations based on authority or position levels of message senders and receivers; typically described as downward, upward, and horizontal communication.
Load is the number of messages moving through the communication system; commonly referred to as load, overload, and underload.
Distortion is anything that contributes to alterations in meaning as messages move through the organization.
The Meaning-Centered approach:
The meaning-centered approach is a way of understanding organizational communication by discovering how organizational reality is generated through human interaction. The approach describes organizational communication as the process for generating shared realities that become organizing, decision-making, influence, and culture (Shockley-Zalabak, 1998, p.54):
Organizing is an ongoing process of human interaction that attempts to reduce message equivocality.
Decision-making is part of organizing and is the process responsible for moving individuals and resources toward accomplishment of organizational goals.
Influence is related to organizing and decision making and, is a process in which individuals and organizations engage to generate desired behaviors. Influence is achieved through organizational identification, socialization, communication rules, and power.
Culture is the unique sense of the organization, its practices, and how the organization describes itself. Organizational culture results in an organizational climate by its member's collective beliefs, expectations and values generated through communication.
The Emerging Perspectives Approach:
The emerging perspectives approach view communication as a constitutive process. Critiques and challenges basic assumptions of message meaning and transfer, power and domination, and notions of rationality associated with hierarchical and patriarchal systems. Communication as a constitutive process is about self and social environments and literally produces organizing, decision making, and influence. (Shockley-Zalabak, 1998, p.76). This approach offers three perspectives: postmodernism, critical, and feminist to view organization communication:
Postmodernism theory rejects former notions of authority and power, stability of meanings, and concepts of effectiveness. This perspective is represented by flattening of hierarchies, instrumental and expressive communication with multiple meanings, group as contrasted to individual achievements, and pervasive ambiguity. Deconstruction is a method of analysis used for the examination of taken-for-granted assumptions and the myths we utilize to explain how things are the way they are. It uncovers interests involved in socially constructed meanings.
Critical theory focuses our attention to studies of power and abuses of power through communication and control. Organizations are depicted as political decision-making sites with potential for both domination and codetermination.
Feminist theory focuses on the marginalization and domination of women in the work place and how the valuing of women's voices contributes to equality for differences.
Analysis of Hewitt communication practices
Under the functional view:
Hewitt is very effective concerning its organizing, relationship and change functions. The company offers to newly admitted associates, classroom training, on-the-job training, and mentoring relationships. The company allows "info-shares" with business leaders in order to provide information about all the aspects of Hewitt's organization. As an associate, Hewitt provides team support with every endeavor.
The company is characterized by somehow holding on to its small company atmosphere. One associate says that "we have a CEO, and everyone knows who he is. But his office is just like any other associate's office, not fancier or large. And he does not have special furniture."(Chicago Magazine, October 2000). The company bonuses job referrals and allow profit sharing. Ted Hewitt, founder of the company, explains Hewitt's organizational philosophy by saying that "All decisions were made on the basis relating the alternatives and considerations to two basic criteria: Will it provide service to our clients of high quality and will it produce a satisfying work experience for all of our people?"
Hewitt is an outsourcing choice by leaders companies such as Boeing Company, Glaxo Wellcome, Deutsche Bank, Nokia, Johnson & Johnson, among others (Outsourcing Journal, February, 2001). The company provides consulting and solutions for corporate restructuring and change, for companies involved in mergers, acquisitions and divestitures. The company is also constantly conducting organizational researches and some of then are available for the general public in the firm's web site.
Considering that the company is always updated, concerning the organizational matters inputs covered by the firm's researches, Hewitt is considered "unique" about their ability and efficiency in implement changes, in Hewitt itself or as a service supplier.
Hewitt has its own Intranet system and developed an eHR system that has been used to deliver human resources benefits and information, in a process that the company calls "self-service". This program is a web resource designed to give the employees the ability to make online decisions and obtain information. This process allows employees to obtain information about career development and to manage their own financial portfolios through the compensation web site.
Hewitt believes that this model of deliver information empower employees, redesign processes and develop HR strategies that favorably impact the bottom line of the business. Some of the reasons that contributed to development of the eHR, according to Hewitt, are:
Pressure to cut costs and reduce administrative burdens.
Diverse and decentralized employee populations.
Disengaged and disaffected workforces.
Even with intranet to link people to people, only 43% of employees believe communication from management is good, and most don't fell communication from their employer is timely.
Most employees hear important company information through the company grapevine.
These formal networks used by Hewitt it is adequate because it is a network that is in constant development and that can be changed in order to better attend the firm's needs. This network makes possible information to flow in all directions within the company and the load of information can be self-determined by the one that is accessing the network.
Under the meaning centered approach:
Hewitt's organizing process can be understood through the program developed by Gubman (1998), which connects strategy and people as a better way of management. Three concepts: alignment, engagement, and measurement are key for the process of organizing. Alignment means getting people pointed in the right direction. Engagement means getting them committed to a company's basic purpose and direction. Measurement means providing connected and balanced ways for a company and its employees to keep score about how they are doing.
Decision making at Hewitt attempt to reach two of the most important things for the company: employee and client satisfaction. (See Ted Hewitt's words in p.13)
At Hewitt, employees are called associates, they work mostly in team, and dress code is casual. The company has its own diversity program and support their associates to engage in community work. As a global organization, Hewitt handles with the multiples backgrounds that their associates bring to the company, and manage, respect, and value the differences in a way that results in a win-win relationship among the company-employees and employees-employees.
"Integrating employees into the company so they understand what your company does and where they fit. Asking them what matters most to them: Money? Flexible hours? Benefits? A collegial work environment? Performing a valuable service? When you meet their needs, even in a small way, they will appreciate it", says Bob Colon, a Senior Consultant. (Business Week, August, 99)
"Our career paths are as unique as you are", the open quote at Hewitt's web site (link Careers- Apply your Skills), demonstrate what it is about: individual/company's shared goals results in a satisfying partnership. Hewitt attempt to match the person's background, interest and goals with the ones from the company itself. The firm allows the person to choose whether he or she want to work with customers or with technology, behind the scenes or face-to-face.
Hewitt is decentralized an open company. Its eHR network provides timely and accessible information through the whole organization, empowering employees to take individuals decisions based in facts and decision based common company/employee goals.
The firm's culture is based in four mainly topics, quoted below: (from Hewitt's link Careers Our Culture)
People Treat people with respect and dignity. Build positive, trusting relationship through open communication, sharing, and valuing diverse perspectives.
Excellence Responsibility to deliver quality and innovation on our work through personal initiative and continuos development of skills and knowledge, with strong support from the firm.
Collaboration Teamwork leverages our individual talents to serve our clients and their people exceptionally well. "Win-win" relationships are our goal as we work with clients, other associates, business partners, and service providers.
Integrity Ethical behavior, honesty, and integrity are fundamental characteristics of our conduct in all aspects of our work.
Hewitt's culture enables a feeling of satisfaction and belonging from its associates, which results in what an employee calls an "extremely strong sense of collaboration and cooperation" among its workers. (Chicago Magazine, October, 2000)
Under the emerging perspectives approach:
Once hidden power relationships contributes to the suspension of critical thinking, can be stated that Hewitt's power practices don't apply to this case. Mainly, the company values creative behavior. Initiative, experience, and knowledge are essential for decision making, and decision making is done through the common decision from a whole team member, as such, codetermination.
In Hewitt's case, marginalization is another context excluded from the firm's practices. Considering their culture and benefits, that reflect in actions what the firm's advocate, is certain to say that Hewitt really "value differences as race, gender, age, ethnicity, sexual orientation, thinking style, personality, and work experience"(from Hewitt's link Careers Diversity). As a feminist theorist would say: "The value of all voices contributes to an equality for differences."
REFERENCES
Goolsby, K. (February 2001). Special Recognition For Outstanding Service. OutsourcingJournal[online]. Available:
http://www.outsourcingjournal.com/issues/feb2001/html/special_recognition.html
Gubman, E. (May, 1998). The talent solution: aligning strategy and people to achieve extraordinary results. Reports and Publications[online]. Available: http://was.hewitt.com/hewitt/resource/rptspubs/subrptspubs/solution_index.htm
Hewitt Publications. (May 2000). eHR Transforms the workplace. Results through people[online], 2. Available:
http://was.hewitt.com/hewitt/resource/rptspubs/results/rtp_may/features_2.htm
Hewitt Publications. (May 2000). All signs point to the best. Results through people[online], 3. Available:
http://was.hewitt.com/hewitt/resource/rptspubs/results/rtp_may/features_1.htm
Hewitt.com. (2001). Hewitt Associates.[On-line]. Available: http://www.hewitt.com
Klein, K. (August1999). Advice and columns. Businessweek.com[online]. Available: http://businessweek.com:/smallbiz/news/coladvice/ask/sa990824.htm?scriptFramed
Shen, T., & Zivan, D. (October 2000). The Best Places To Work. Chicago Magazine, 49, 100-111.
By: Alicia Denney
SECTION ONE
The Tribune Company has been ranked the number one, most valued company in America by Fortune Magazine for the year 2000 (HTTP://www.tribune.com). According to the same site, The Tribune Company reaches "nearly 80% of the households in the United States on a daily basis." The notion that there are companies that make this much of an impact and infiltrate that many households has been the source of inspiration and fascination for many who want to go into the field. There are many forms of established and emerging media, and increasingly, a media company is involved in more than just one form of channel/outlet. Today, most of the leading media companies have their fingers in many media branches: broadcast, print, online, etc.
The Tribune Company is a prime example of such a multi-faceted organization. Working for a company with this much influence and involvement would be a very satisfying career move for the present author. To discover how one could become a part of a team such as The Tribune Company, the present author researched the company, including examining the website that The Tribune Company dedicates to posting job opportunities and interviewing one of the company's recruitment managers, Mr. Matthew Garvey. This research helped to explicate which knowledge competencies ( Shockley-Zalabak 1999, p. xi) would be required for entry-level employment. According to Shockley-Zalabak, knowledge competencies are, "what we come to know about the theory and principles of a particular field of study" (1999, p. xi). The knowledge competencies that we develop function to form the foundation for how we begin to understand a certain field. The present author also found a great deal of information regarding the large merger that occurred between the Tribune Company and Times-Mirror Company (Los Angeles, CA).
In a Company Overview newsletter entitled "Meet The New Tribune," Dennis FitzSimons and John Madigan, president and vice president of The Tribune Company respectively, called the merger a "multi-media growth strategy" and stated that "leveraging content and promotion strengths across multiple media, including interactive, is how we build our brands, audience, and market share" (HTTP://www.tribune.com/overview/letter.html). Aware of the nature of mergers and their tendency to forgo care of the individual and replace it with care for the "bottom line", further analysis of the merger is warranted. Speculation concerning the extent to which sensitivity competencies were present in the making of these merger decisions also occurred. Sensitivity competency "refers to our ability to sense or become aware of a variety of organizational meanings and feelings. It is related to our ability and willingness to understand what others are feeling and doing" (Shockley-Zalabak, 1999, pp.xi-xii). Upon completion, the present author went directly to the company's job website and determined which skills are required by the Tribune Company for entry-level employment. These skills are the application of knowledge and sensitivity competencies. Finally, relative to the merger, the present author researched the degree to which values were present. Values refer to the ethical standards and guidelines that a company follows in times of an event such as the merger.
When Mr. Matthew Garvey, a corporate recruiter for the Tribune Company, was asked what types of theoretical knowledge competencies would be required for an entry-level position with the organization, he replied, "We don't necessarily see a bachelor's degree or a master's degree from a university as being substantial evidence that you have gained a proper theoretical understanding of the way that a company such as the Tribune works. We look at what experience you have gained while earning your degree. Say you have worked during your holidays or breaks, and that experience that you have gained totals around two yearsthen you might be considered for entry-level employment with the Tribune." It seems as though, for a company like The Tribune, theoretical knowledge does not flow from the classroom. Rather, it comes from being in the field and gaining experience, which lends itself in part to Shockley-Zalabak's definition of communication competency which, "comprises knowledge, sensitivity, skills, and values. Competence arises from an interaction of theory, practice, and analysis" (1999, p. 6). Thus, communication competency is the product and combination of what individuals learn in the classroom as well as what is experienced in the field. It is also what individuals realize as a result of analyzing our situations through the knowledge gained in the field and the classroom. To gain a competitive edge in an extremely competitive market, the Tribune Company sets very high standards relative to who is considered eligible for a position within the organization; even an entry-level position. As Shockley-Zalabak purports throughout her text, it is not enough to become competent in one areaa person who is "communication competent" is well-rounded with "theory, practice, and analysis." (1999, p. 6). It follows, then, that an education restricted to classroom learning is hardly sufficient.
On June 12, 2000, The Tribune Company and Los Angeles-based Times-Mirror finalized their much-anticipated merger. According to Tim Jones, this merger was "the biggest newspaper marriage in history" (chicagotribune.com/business/printedition/ article/0,2669,SAV-0006110158,FF.html). Assessing the nature of the merger as it relates to the sensitivity competencies, it was illustrative to adopt two perspectives. The first approach gives advice to companies on how to merge without chaos, and the other, two articles on the media merger's "profound effects on not only journalists but also on the public trust" (Tran Ha, Rochelle Lavin, poynter.org). On March 18, 2001, The Chicago Tribune printed an article entitled, "Mergers' Secrets of Success," which reveals many of the sensitivity competencies that Shockley-Zalabak refers to in her text as our "ability to sense accurately organizational meanings and feelings" (1999, p.8). The article printed in the Tribune shows one way in which individuals understand and interpret "complex organizational environments" (Shockley-Zalabak, 1999, p.8). Stewart (2001), the reports the following instructions given to prospective merging companies for a successful move: "Move quicklyDon't compromiseFocus on customersPut top guns in chargeCommitment" (Chicago Tribune, March 18, 2001). The focal point for success within this organization during a merger is obviously not the employee. The directions seem to account for everything, but the fate of the employee in these recommendations. Moving quickly seems to entail acting as swiftly as possible so as to create the least amount of commotion within the organization. However, by doing this, many employees would not even have a chance to safeguard themselves in the event of job loss. Though it is imperative to keep an organization's customers in mind, it is also of equal necessity to consider employees' needs when merging. Finally, By putting "top guns in charge", it may be quite painless for those on top to overlook those on the bottom. The same holds true on the Tribune Company's website in reference to their own merger: "Bottom line: an aggressive growth strategy is essential to delivering long-term shareholder value and controlling our own destiny" (HTTP://www.tribune.com).
Another perspective exists that theorists often apply in order to interpret an organization's meanings and feelings. In particular, one focused on the creation of organizational meanings and feelings as they are related and inextricably linked to viewing the organization as a process created and maintained by human interaction. Ha and Lavin (2000) track the progress of the merger that occurred between the Tribune Company and Times-Mirror, focusing on the creation and interpretation of meaning as it is related to the individuals involved. When asked by Ha and Lavin about employee fears concerning firings that may happen, Bob Drogin, a reporter for the LA Times responded, "The LA Times is a very successful paper, with good journalists. There is no reason to think that they (the Tribune Co.) would buy it and then cut it down to something less than what it is" (Ha & Lavin, 2000, poynter.org). As a precaution, Ha and Lavin offers the following advice to newsroom staff in light of the recent merger-mania: "Be a good reporter. Research. Re-evaluate your job. Get a new e-mail address [to send out resumes]. Present yourself well. Dust off your resume" (Ha & Lavin, 2000, poynter.org). Clearly, this perspective focuses on the organization's meaning as the employees create it. In contrast, the other focuses on the creation of the organization's meaning as it is related to the "bottom line."
The skills necessary for entry-level employment, as stated above, extend beyond that which are attained through acquiring a degree in Communication. Every job description included something to the effect of, "You must have the ability to handle multiple tasks with changing priorities in a fast-paced work environment, possessing excellent written and verbal communication/customer service skills. Qualified candidates will have two to three years of experience in a field with similar responsibilities" (tribjobs.com). Matthew Garvey's response to my question regarding skills necessary for entry-level employment was consistent with the company's employment website. Communication competency seems to be the key to employment with the Tribune Company, which entails much more than what could be learned in a classroom environment. There are many job opportunities posted on the website, however, this analysis focuses on those that seemed to be entry-level positions. The aspect of the field that the present author aspires to is not included. Specifically, there were no job openings for staff writers listed on the web site. The present author asked Mr. Matthew Garvey to explain. He stated that those positions are often awarded to those already within the company. Matthew dictated also that the system becomes even more closed during "crucial" points in time, such as the recent merger.
The skills that are outlined in tribjobs.com as being requirements for entry-level employment seemed to be grossly overlooked during the merger. The company's website purports that there are eight major values that are incorporated into The Tribune Company since 1847: "Citizenship, customer satisfaction, diversity, financial strength, innovation, integrity, success, and teamwork" (HTTP://www.tribjobs.com/job/Navigation /Values.html). Though the qualities put forth by the Tribune Company are highly valuable, and have the ability to create an ideal organization if implemented, it is vital for an organization to put their theories into practice as well. Are those individuals in directorial positions are not required to adhere to the same standards that stand as guidelines for "employees?" Furthermore, all of the descriptions include the necessity of interpersonal skills, which does not fit in well with the company's merging philosophy: the preservation of the bottom line.
To evaluate the impact, the present author inquired: "How many people lost their jobs to the merger of the two companies?" Matthew Garvey responded: "A few hundred. eight or nine hundred. Mostly positions that overlapped. You can't pay two people to do the same job. But feelings are always going to be hurt, but everyone gets some sort of a compensation package, so no one walked out crying." Bob Drogin, reporter for the LA Times since 1983, was quite erroneous in his assessment and prediction about the future of his and others' jobs when he stated, "There is no reason to think that they (the Tribune Co.) would buy it and then cut it down to something less than what it is" (Ha & Lavin, 2000, poynter.org). In a section of tribjobs.com entitled "Company Values," cited above, The Tribune Company contends that one of their tenets of value making is "Citizenship: requires giving back to the communities where we do business, supporting philanthropic causes" (tribjobs.com/job/navigation/values.html). There is a major contradiction in terms: philanthropy is that which is done for the sake of humankind. "Giving back to the community?" There is nothing philanthropic about firing "eight or nine hundred" people for the sake of better business, and the only thing that the Tribune seems to be giving back to the community of Los Angeles is a great number of unemployed citizens. It was greatly disappointing when to learn about the nature of this merger, but have been repeatedly told that this is the nature of business today: fast-paced and ever-changing. There are alternatives; however, one of which has been discussed in class. It should be the company's responsibility to offer outplacement services to employees who have been suddenly displaced by mergers. A program should be implemented that extends much farther than a severance compensation package. Many individuals know what this can consist of by observing our own department of Communication's recent downsizing scandal. Scars created by being "let go" from a company that one has so faithfully worked for form much deeper than on the financial level.
SECTION TWO
The most effective approach to employ in analyzing the nature of the communication practices of the Tribune Company is to examine them through the lens of the emerging perspectives (Shockley-Zalabak, 1999, p.71). As Shockley-Zalabak states, emerging perspectives such as those that follow the claims of post-modernists "reject the claims of the Functional and Meaning-centered perspectives as overly simplistic and lacking in understanding of a world characterized by rapid change, multiple meanings, and pervasive ambiguity" (1999, p.71). The Tribune Company is a prime example of an organization with such characteristics. Shockley-Zalabak then comments on the new organizational context:
Organizations are increasing in size and complexity with communication technologies changing even the most basic of organization processes. Globalization both influences organizing processes and changes the very nature of work itselfPut
simply, this current time of turbulence and rapid change
has given rise to a contemporary context where new questions
and new challenges are important for understanding our
organizational lives. (1999, pp. 69-70)
The Tribune Company prides in constantly striving to progress through the use of creative technological innovation (tribjobs.com). A multi-faceted media company such as the Tribune can only be adequately evaluated in these terms. Moreso, it is the epitome of an organization characterized by rapid change.
There are three approaches that all fall under the category "emerging perspectives:" postmodernism, critical theory, and feminist theory. All three hold that organizations can no longer be seen through Functional or Meaning-centered approaches. Each differ, however, in what the respective theory focuses on within the new, contemporary communication context. It would be illuminating to examine the Tribune Company through the lens of the feminist perspective, but it is beneficial to briefly analyze the organization relative to the other two approaches.
Postmodernists are most widely known for their "alienation from the past, skepticism about authority structures, ambiguity of meanings, and mass culture" (Shockley-Zalabak, 1999, p.71). Though post-modernists do not reject all ways in which an organization functions, they do view the traditional foundations of an organization as being archaic and in need of a mass overhaul. Therefore, postmodern theories do not utilize traditional meanings and definitions of organizations in analysis, which include assumptions that are made about who should be a powerful figure within an organization. Nor do they view the nature of organizational messages as concrete and static, as the Functional approach tends to. According to post-modernists, there is no one objective truth. Rather, reality is a subjective, socially-created force that is dynamic and ever-changing. Subsequently, traditional structures of organizations are rejected as well, and are replaced with new notions of the means in which organizations should be structured.
Post modernists would be highly critical of the stratification of the Tribune Company, since the organization employs an extremely vertical hierarchy. Utilizing such a structure promotes a very static and concrete view. Hierarchies do not allow much latitude in terms of creating a dynamic organizational environment; rather, a vertical stratification binds decision-making abilities to those who are situated at the top of the chain. Post modernists would call for a decentralization of traditional structures in organizations, and would reject claims that this is the most effective means of running an organization. Rather than limit the ability to make decisions to the privileged few, post modernists dictate that all will inevitably make decisions involved in an organization, and denying this reality creates a dysfunctional organizational environment.
The Tribune Company is a prime example of an organization that promotes such a vertical hierarchy. In an overview of the company's corporate management committee and board of directors, found on the company's website, it is obvious that the Tribune Company is a highly centralized organization. John Madigan is the President, Chairman, and Chief Executive Officer, Dennis FitzSimons is executive Vice Presidentall major corporate positions are held by older Caucasian men (as was observed on the homepage and will be further discussed in light of feminist perspectives). Postmodernists would ask whom it is that holds the power within the organization, and in this case, it would obviously be those at the top. They would contend that the meanings created by those on top are not necessarily the reality of meaning for the organization, though should naturally be perceived as accounting for a fraction of the organization's meaning. Conversely, it resides in how employees of the corporation interpret messages individually. Post modernists would also ask how one could deconstruct an organization's structure in order to understand where many of the assumptions come from about the nature of the organization as a static being. Finally, a postmodern theorist would redirect the interests of the organization so that it accounts for the nature of meaning as being socially constructed (Shockley-Zalabak, 1999, p. 71).
Critical Theory analyzes how power is created and abused within an organization. With the Tribune Company, a critical theorist would analyze the Corporate Management list and ask by what means those on top attained their positions. Critical theorists would then carefully analyze how those who sit on top engage in both intentional and inadvertent abuses of power. Abuse of power comes in many forms, and can range from a misuse of corporate funds to any type of exploitation of those employees at the bottom. Throughout this research, no published incidences involving misuses of corporate funds or any abuse of power was found. However, this should not be immediately taken as an objective truth. The Tribune Company is a multi-mediated organization; it therefore becomes quite simple for the organization to act as a gatekeeper and censurer information that is damaging to the preservation of the organization's image. Publishing articles that expose misuse of corporate funds would not be in the Tribune Company's interest.
There are other means of power abuse that are not as obvious as those explicated above. According to Shockley-Zalabak, abuse of power stems from hegemonic control: "Hegemony is a process of control based on a dominant group leading others to believe that their subordination is normal or the norm" (1999, p. 72). The merger is a prime example of an abuse of those on the bottom in the interest of those at the top based on hegemony. In the words of the president John Madigan: "For all of us, creating value for shareholders continues to be our highest priority" (www.tribune.com/ overview/ letter.html). Madigan's concern with the company's shareholders is obviously not referring to the fact that every employee of the Tribune Company is given a very small stock in the company. He is referring to the wealthy few playing the stock market who own a great deal of the company in the form of sharesthose who can help fund the purchase of company cars for senior corporate managers. For a critical theorist, Madigan's focal point is greatly misdirectedsuch prioritizing would definitely be seen as an abuse of power.
Related to the abuse of power that critical theorists analyze is that which feminist theory focuses on: "There is considerable evidence that managerial cultures are male cultures and that the ability to manage, control, and exert authority is gendered male" (Charles and Davies, 2000, p. 544). Feminist theory, in relation to organizational communication, works to unearth fact that in the work place, the preceding quote is quite applicable. Feminist theorists who study the nature of the work environment for women do so to bring to surface underlying assumptions. They center on who can be a senior manager, and how the requirements stem from very outdated ideologiesfrom a time when a woman's place was nowhere near the seat of "President" of a company. Feminists are working to change this stereotype, as well as focusing on "the marginalization and domination of women in the workplace and the valuing of women's voices in all organizational processes" (Shockley-Zalabak, 1999, p. 74). The peak of the Women's movement took place in the middle of the 1970s, and women are continuing to work toward a progressive equality. However, the statistics on the Tribune Company reveal that the organization leaves much to be desired in promoting women's equality. For instance, of the ten people who held senior Corporate Management positions, none were female. Moreover, from the fourteen people who comprised the Tribune Company's Board of Directors, only one was female, and has only been on the board since 1995, while practically every other member had been one since before 1981. The women's movement has had an effect on the demographics of directorial positions, but in many instances, the effect has been marginalat least in this aspect. The belief that women will reach a status of full equality is one that evokes mixed feelings in our society and others, but as Montagu stated in her work that far preceded the height of the women's movement: "the changes will come gradually but inevitablywe should not worry too much about wrecking the machinery of traditional social organization by exceeding the speed limit of rational inquiry" (Montagu, 1946, p.215). Here Montagu states her belief that a certain degree of disruption and disagreement will inevitably surface in the woman's track toward equality, and individuals should embrace such upheaval.
Feminist theory also focuses on how values set by organizations are inherently male-centered. For instance, the Tribune Company cites one of their values as being the necessity to sometimes use aggressive measures to reach goals. The "aggressive nature" is one that has been identified in social scientific research as a male-centered value. Women are stereotypically not inclined towards such aggressive measures, and many individuals purport that women are emotionally weaker than men. This alleged emotional weakness makes a woman less apt to run an organization without letting emotion stand in the way. Therefore, traditional theory holds that women inherently exist in a socially inferior position. Feminist communication theorists observe this tenet and question its validity by searching for the root of the belief. Montagu concludes: "The function of the myth that women are emotionally weaker than men has been to maintain the prejudice that while man is the supremely rational and intelligent creature, women is the creature of her emotions" (Montagu, 1946, p. 104).
Women, to some individuals, do not have the intellectual capabilities necessary to act aggressively or competitively, either. Consequently, this "competitive ethic typically casts women into the role of the 'other'" (Shockley-Zalabak, 1999, p. 75). According to the feminist approach, to remedy the male-centered value system, the Tribune Company should employ the act of integrating characteristics stereotypically associated with a woman's socialized characteristics: "integrating emotion in communication theory, while promoting discussions of the authentic self" (Shockley-Zalabak, 1999, p.75). Although linear and rational thought are sometimes beneficial to an organization, it is also important to not always employ the "Vulcan Imperative" (Query, 2001) when working with or in organizations.
However, men are not always the group promoting the "Vulcan imperative." Ironically, as more women are entering the work field, emotions have become more and more taboo. A website entitled Women.com provides a perfect illustration. This website focuses on women's issues and provides articles, tips, and editorial columns dedicated to women. On its main page there is a link to an article entitled: "The Seven Deadly Sins: Emotions in the Workplace." The article, by Pamela Redmond Satran, opens with an illustration of a woman with Medusa-like mini heads extending from herone breathes fire (anger), one is green (envy), another looks on with her nose in the air (pride), etc. Following the illustration of the woman with emotions running rampid, the article proceeds through the "Seven Deadly Sins" and explains them relative to the negative impact that a woman's emotions can have in the workplace. Satran intends to parody the fact that women are genetically disposed to reacting with different emotions then men. However, she is also promoting the notion that all emotion should be "left in the parking lot along with our Erykah Badu CDs (HTTP://www.women.com/careers/sins). Her article portrays women as one of Freud's "hysterical women," utterly devoid of an ability to exert control. If women want total equality in the workplace, it would also be beneficial for women to stop propagating the stereotypes that have fed the fire of inequality thus far.
We, as women, have the ability to build from the progress that was made during the women's movement, and can empower ourselves to change traditional stereotypes, ideologies, and notions that are held about who should be in the most powerful, corporate positions. However, gender equality is not a concept that women alone can attack and conquer. Both must play a role in the fight for equality. John Stewart Mill was one of the first recorded male thinkers to put such thoughts in to words:
the principle which regulates the existing social
relations between the two sexesthe legal subord-
ination of one sex to the otheris wrong itself, and
now one of the chief hindrances to human improvement;
and that it ought to be replaced by a principle of perfect
equality, admitting no power or privilege on the one,
nor disability on the other
(HTTP://www.constitition.org/jsm/women.htm).
The Tribune Company needs substantial work in this area. Ideas of equality for all have obviously been in the making for several centuries now. It was disappointing to learn that an organization that initially appears to be one of the most cutting-edge turns out to be not much different than those which are widely seen as male-centric (i.e., the United States presidency). It is expected that there will be many downsides to working for any company. It is, however, the responsibility of people to change that which they do not find favorable. Subsequently, any female who plans on entering the field of journalism, which has stereotypically been very male-dominated, may well play a significant role in the overhaul of such outdated stereotypes.
REFERENCES
Charles, N., & Davies, C. (2000). Cultural stereotypes and the gendering of senior management. The Sociological Review, 12(4), 544-547.
Ha, T., & Lavin R. (2000, March 17). Media Mergers: The saga continues. [On-Line]. Available: http://www.poynter.org/centerpiece/031700-index.html.
Ha, T., & Lavin, R. (2000, March 20). Surviving the media merger storm. [On-Line]. Available: http://www.poynter.org/centerpiece/032000-index.html.
Garvey, M. Personal interview. 2001, March 16.
Jones, T. (2000, June 11). Key to times mirror merger: Ads--pressure's on tribune to sell multimedia model. [On-Line]. Available: http://chicagotribune.com/business/printedition/article/0,2669,SAV-0006110158,FF.html.
Mill, J.S. (1869) The Subjection of women. [On-Line] Available: HTTP: //www.constitution.org/jsm/women.htm
Montagu, A. (1974) The natural superiority of women (4th Ed.). New York: MacMillan Publishing Company, Incorporated.
Query, J. (2001, Spring Semester). Class lecture: Organizational Communication. Loyola University Chicago.
Satran, P. (2001, May 3). The seven deadly sins: Emotions in the workplace. Women.com. [On-Line] Available: HTTP://www. women.com/careers/sins/
Shockley-Zalabak, P. (1999). Fundamentals of organizational communication: Knowlege, sensitivity, skills, values (4th ed.). New York: Addison Wesely Longman.
Stewart, J. (2001, March 18). Merger's secrets of success. The Chicago Tribune, The Business Section. [On-Line] Archived: HTTP://archives.chicago.tribune.com/cgi-bin/slwebchi.pl?DBQUERY=%22mergers%27+secrets+of+success%22&DBLIST=ct01&NITEMS=25&SORT=d%3Ah&v1=http%3A%2F%2Fchicagotribune.com%2F
The Tribune Company. (2001, March 2). Tribjobs.com-Businesses. [On-Line]. Available: http://www.tribjobs.com/job/Navigation/Values.html.
The Tribune Company. (2001, March 2). Tribune company-Fall 2000. [On-Line]. Available: http://www.tribune.com/overview/letter.html.
