The Scientific Method
Explication and Terminology
Scientific Method Overview
Jim L. Query, Jr., Ph.D., 1/99
The purpose of this handout is to provide you with an overview concerning the scientific method, RQs, non-directional hypotheses (hys), and directional hys. This information is presented in an outline format. More in-depth information is available in a number of sources, some of which are listed in the last section.
The Scientific Method
This is a four step process.
1). ID the target phenomena/behavior.
2). Generate specific "hunches" about the target. Variable reduction, conceptualization, and operationalization occur here.
3). Collect data to test the RQs or hys. Here, each investigator explicates key details of the proposed research design.
4). Interpret the results. Here, one describes the possible ramifications if the hys/RQs were supported or rejected. One also explains limitations of the study and directions for future research.
Example
XYZ has been in operation for less than two years. Their top management is becoming alarmed at the high numbers of employees leaving the organization. In an effort to determine the "roots" of the problem, XYZ brings in an outside consultant to evaluate the climate of the organization.
Step 1--- We seek to explain the relationship between the organizational climate and employee turn-over.
Step 2--- Is there an association between organizational climate and employee turn-over?
Cohesive organizational climates produce low employee turn-over rates.
Hostile organizational climates produce high employee turn-over rates.
The quality of organizational climates has some relationship with employee turn-over rates.
Variable Reduction, Conceptualization, and Operationalization
A). Variable Reduction---scholars focus on select variables and justify their focus along pragmatic and theoretical grounds. Variables From Step 2---cohesiveness and hostility; organizational climate; employee turn-over (low and high levels).
B). Conceptualization---define the selected variables. For example, one may define organizational climate in terms of its key chars... key question---is there one best defn of any variable? Why or why not? How does the process of operationalization inform one's response???
C). Operationalization---describe how to measure conceptual definitions and specify the levels necessary. For instance, employee turn-over would be measured by ... A high level would be...One's references should help conceptualize and operationalize the selected variables.
Step3---Describe in detail how to gather data to test the hunches. The account should explicate data-collection methods, sample chars, realistic sample participation strategies, and the expected time frame of the proposed investigation.
Step4---Explain the significance of supporting/rejecting the hys/RQs. ID and explain any salient limitations which limit the study's explanatory power. Describe directions for future research (these should be tied to...).
Additional Sources:
Infante, D., Rancer, A., & Womack, D. (1990). Building communication theory. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland.
Rubin, R., Rubin, A., & Piele, L. (1990). Communication research: Strategies and sources (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Smith, M. J. (1988). Contemporary communication research methods. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Stacks, D., & Hocking, J. (1992). Essentials of communication research. New York: Harper Collins.
rev 1/99
**************************************************
THE PROCESS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH AND KEY TERMINOLOGY (AKA, HELP, LIFE IS OVER!!!)
Scholarly research, especially quantitative studies, follow a logical pattern.
- OK, so just what is a quantitative study?
At a global level, it is an investigation which measures variables (targets) through some type of numerically-based data collection method? Can you think of some examples?
- Is there a common set of procedures or structure which quantitative investigations (QNI) follow?
Yes, the key components of a QNI are:
Introduction
Rationale
Lit Review
Methods
Results
Discussion.
- What is in each section?
I= ...
R= ...
Lit Review = ...
Methods = ...
Results = ...
Discussion = ...
- Define RQS and Hys.
An RQ advances a suspected relationship between two variables by posing a research problematic. RQS usually occur in the early stages of a project or when there is a paucity of research. Some examples include: Does a relationship exist between stress and disconfirming communication among nurses? Is there an association between the HMO's climate and client satisfaction? What are the recurring themes of PWAs within a community living facility such as Bonaventure House?
HYs
A non-directional hy provides a two-tailed test of a suspected relationship. Although stronger than an RQ, it is less powerful than a directional hy. An example would be: A cohesive HMO climate is related to client satisfaction. In contrast, a directional hy provided a one-tailed test and might look like this: A highly cohesive HMO climate produces high client satisfaction. A null hypothesis is always tested and states that there is no difference there will be no change in the variables.
- If a Hy is confirmed in a study, have the investigators proven their hunch? NOPE! Many more investigations are needed before the theories become facts.
Key Terminology
Variable---any research concept that takes two or more values; the target item(s) of a study.
Independent variable---a target (e.g., behavior, event, process) which is manipulated by the investigator(s); or some antecedent variable that is presumed to influence an outcome (e.g., education is thought to influence earning power).
Dependent variable---a target (e.g., behavior, event, process) which measures the impact of manipulating the independent variable; or its influence.
Control Group/Comparison Group---a collection of individuals who do not receive the manipulation of independent variable(s). They may receive, however, a placebo.
Pre-test---a data collection measure administered prior to an investigation.
Post-test---a data collection measure administered after an investigation.
Experiment---an investigation which involves independent variables, pre-and-post tests and a control/comparison group.
Probabilility level---the level at which hypotheses are tested (e.g., .05, .10, .01, or .001).
Jim L. Query, Jr., Ph.D., 1/99
The purpose of this handout is to provide you with an overview concerning the scientific method, RQs, non-directional hypotheses (hys), and directional hys. This information is presented in an outline format. More in-depth information is available in a number of sources, some of which are listed in the last section.
The Scientific Method
This is a four step process.
1). ID the target phenomena/behavior.
2). Generate specific "hunches" about the target. Variable reduction, conceptualization, and operationalization occur here.
3). Collect data to test the RQs or hys. Here, each investigator explicates key details of the proposed research design.
4). Interpret the results. Here, one describes the possible ramifications if the hys/RQs were supported or rejected. One also explains limitations of the study and directions for future research.
Example
XYZ has been in operation for less than two years. Their top management is becoming alarmed at the high numbers of employees leaving the organization. In an effort to determine the "roots" of the problem, XYZ brings in an outside consultant to evaluate the climate of the organization.
Step 1--- We seek to explain the relationship between the organizational climate and employee turn-over.
Step 2--- Is there an association between organizational climate and employee turn-over?
Cohesive organizational climates produce low employee turn-over rates.
Hostile organizational climates produce high employee turn-over rates.
The quality of organizational climates has some relationship with employee turn-over rates.
Variable Reduction, Conceptualization, and Operationalization
A). Variable Reduction---scholars focus on select variables and justify their focus along pragmatic and theoretical grounds. Variables From Step 2---cohesiveness and hostility; organizational climate; employee turn-over (low and high levels).
B). Conceptualization---define the selected variables. For example, one may define organizational climate in terms of its key chars... key question---is there one best defn of any variable? Why or why not? How does the process of operationalization inform one's response???
C). Operationalization---describe how to measure conceptual definitions and specify the levels necessary. For instance, employee turn-over would be measured by ... A high level would be...One's references should help conceptualize and operationalize the selected variables.
Step3---Describe in detail how to gather data to test the hunches. The account should explicate data-collection methods, sample chars, realistic sample participation strategies, and the expected time frame of the proposed investigation.
Step4---Explain the significance of supporting/rejecting the hys/RQs. ID and explain any salient limitations which limit the study's explanatory power. Describe directions for future research (these should be tied to...).
Additional Sources:
Infante, D., Rancer, A., & Womack, D. (1990). Building communication theory. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland.
Rubin, R., Rubin, A., & Piele, L. (1990). Communication research: Strategies and sources (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Smith, M. J. (1988). Contemporary communication research methods. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Stacks, D., & Hocking, J. (1992). Essentials of communication research. New York: Harper Collins.
rev 1/99
**************************************************
THE PROCESS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH AND KEY TERMINOLOGY (AKA, HELP, LIFE IS OVER!!!)
Scholarly research, especially quantitative studies, follow a logical pattern.
- OK, so just what is a quantitative study?
At a global level, it is an investigation which measures variables (targets) through some type of numerically-based data collection method? Can you think of some examples?
- Is there a common set of procedures or structure which quantitative investigations (QNI) follow?
Yes, the key components of a QNI are:
Introduction
Rationale
Lit Review
Methods
Results
Discussion.
- What is in each section?
I= ...
R= ...
Lit Review = ...
Methods = ...
Results = ...
Discussion = ...
- Define RQS and Hys.
An RQ advances a suspected relationship between two variables by posing a research problematic. RQS usually occur in the early stages of a project or when there is a paucity of research. Some examples include: Does a relationship exist between stress and disconfirming communication among nurses? Is there an association between the HMO's climate and client satisfaction? What are the recurring themes of PWAs within a community living facility such as Bonaventure House?
HYs
A non-directional hy provides a two-tailed test of a suspected relationship. Although stronger than an RQ, it is less powerful than a directional hy. An example would be: A cohesive HMO climate is related to client satisfaction. In contrast, a directional hy provided a one-tailed test and might look like this: A highly cohesive HMO climate produces high client satisfaction. A null hypothesis is always tested and states that there is no difference there will be no change in the variables.
- If a Hy is confirmed in a study, have the investigators proven their hunch? NOPE! Many more investigations are needed before the theories become facts.
Key Terminology
Variable---any research concept that takes two or more values; the target item(s) of a study.
Independent variable---a target (e.g., behavior, event, process) which is manipulated by the investigator(s); or some antecedent variable that is presumed to influence an outcome (e.g., education is thought to influence earning power).
Dependent variable---a target (e.g., behavior, event, process) which measures the impact of manipulating the independent variable; or its influence.
Control Group/Comparison Group---a collection of individuals who do not receive the manipulation of independent variable(s). They may receive, however, a placebo.
Pre-test---a data collection measure administered prior to an investigation.
Post-test---a data collection measure administered after an investigation.
Experiment---an investigation which involves independent variables, pre-and-post tests and a control/comparison group.
Probabilility level---the level at which hypotheses are tested (e.g., .05, .10, .01, or .001).
Jim's Research Scenarios
